Aristotelian ethics - Wikipedia. Aristotle first used the term ethics to name a field of study developed by his predecessors Socrates and Plato. Philosophical ethics is the attempt to offer a rational response to the question of how humans should best live. Aristotle regarded ethics and politics as two related but separate fields of study, since ethics examines the good of the individual, while politics examines the good of the city- state (Greekpolis). Aristotle's writings have been read more or less continuously since ancient times. Aristotle emphasized the importance of developing excellence (virtue) of character (Greek ethik. As Aristotle argues in Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, the man who possesses character excellence does the right thing, at the right time, and in the right way. The arrival of Baroness Mary Vetsera and the 'Circus of Truth. Graphic comparisons of releases, upcoming cover images, release calendar, and reviews. Bravery, and the correct regulation of one's bodily appetites, are examples of character excellence or virtue. So acting bravely and acting temperately are examples of excellent activities. The highest aims are living well and eudaimonia a Greek word often translated as well- being, happiness or . For example, Aristotle thinks that the man whose appetites are in the correct order actually takes pleasure in acting moderately. Aristotle emphasized that virtue is practical, and that the purpose of ethics is to become good, not merely to know. Aristotle also claims that the right course of action depends upon the details of a particular situation, rather than being generated merely by applying a law. The type of wisdom which is required for this is called . But despite the importance of practical decision making, in the final analysis the original Aristotelian and Socratic answer to the question of how best to live, at least for the best types of human, was to live the life of philosophy. Three ethical treatises. The NE is in 1. 0 books, and is the most widely read of Aristotle's ethical treatises. Eudemian Ethics, often abbreviated as the EE. Magna Moralia, often abbreviated as the MM. The exact origins of these texts is unclear, although they were already considered the works of Aristotle in ancient times. Rudolf is a good-natured pan-sexual golden boy, who cavorts on his rural estate with a host of beautiful, aristocratic lovers and friends of both sexes. In the forbidden corners of an ornate and dusty room lies a reel of beauty, of vice, of shadowy lust and repression. Written in a scrawl that is uniquely lovely in. In its broadest definition, “civic education” means all the processes that affect people's beliefs, commitments, capabilities, and actions as members. Aristotle, The Nichomachean Ethics of Aristotle, trans. 5th edition (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Truebner & Co., 1893). Textual oddities suggest that they may not have been put in their current form by Aristotle himself. For example, Books IV- VI of Eudemian Ethics also appear as Books V- VII of Nicomachean Ethics. The authenticity of the Magna Moralia has been doubted. Some critics consider the Eudemian Ethics to be . Although Aristotle's father was also called Nicomachus, Aristotle's son was the next leader of Aristotle's school, the Lyceum, and in ancient times he was already associated with this work. Aristotle's Ethics also states that the good of the individual is subordinate to the good of the city- state, or polis. Fragments also survive from Aristotle's Protrepticus, another work which dealt with ethics. Aristotle as a Socratic. While Socrates left no written works, and Plato wrote dialogues and a few letters, Aristotle wrote treatises in which he sets forth philosophical doctrines directly. To be more precise, Aristotle did write dialogues, but they unfortunately survive only in fragments. Aristotle dealt with this same question but giving it two names, . The original Socratic questioning on ethics started at least partly as a response to sophism, which was a popular style of education and speech at the time. Sophism emphasized rhetoric, and argument, and therefore often involved criticism of traditional Greek religion and flirtation with moral relativism. It is sometimes referred to in comparison to later ethical theories as a . Like Plato and Socrates he emphasized the importance of reason for human happiness, and that there were logical and natural reasons for humans to behave virtuously, and try to become virtuous. Aristotle's treatment of the subject is distinct in several ways from that found in Plato's Socratic dialogues. Aristotle's presentation is obviously different from Plato's because he does not write in dialogues, but in treatises. Apart from this difference, Aristotle explicitly stated that his presentation was different from Plato's because he started from whatever could be agreed upon by well brought- up gentlemen, and not from any attempt to develop a general theory of what makes anything good. He explained that it was necessary not to aim at too much accuracy at the starting point of any discussion to do with controversial matters such as those concerning what is just or what is beautiful. Aristotle places prudence (phron. He defines happiness in terms of this theory as an actuality (energeia); the virtues which allow happiness (and enjoyment of the best and most constant pleasures) are dynamic- but- stable dispositions (hexeis) which are developed through habituation; and this pleasure in turn is another actuality that compliments the actuality of happy living. For a person to become virtuous, he can't simply study what virtue is, but must actually do virtuous things. In the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle says explicitly that one must begin with what is familiar to us, and . Ancient commentators agree that what Aristotle means here is that his treatise must rely upon practical, everyday knowledge of virtuous actions as the starting points of his inquiry, and that he is supposing that his readers have some kind of experience- based understanding of such actions, and that they value noble and just actions to at least some degree. In fact, some regard his ethical inquiries as using a method that relies upon popular opinion (his so- called . There is some dispute, however, about exactly how such common conceptions fit into Aristotle's method in his ethical treatises. To reach his own conclusion about the best life, however, Aristotle tries to isolate the function of humans. The argument he develops here is accordingly widely known as . Thus neither of these characteristics is particular to humans. According to Aristotle, what remains and what is distinctively human is reason. Thus he concludes that the human function is some kind of excellent exercise of the intellect. And, since Aristotle thinks that practical wisdom rules over the character excellences, exercising such excellences is one way to exercise reason and thus fulfill the human function. One common objection to Aristotle's function argument is that it uses descriptive or factual premises to derive conclusions about what is good. Aristotle develops his analysis of character in Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, where he makes this argument that character arises from habit. In Book III of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle argues that a person's character is voluntary, since it results from many individual actions which are under his voluntary control. Aristotle distinguishes the disposition to feel emotions of a certain kind from virtue and vice. But such emotional dispositions may also lie at a mean between two extremes, and these are also to some extent a result of up- bringing and habituation. Two examples of such dispositions would be modesty, or a tendency to feel shame, which Aristotle discusses in NE IV. For example, someone may choose to refrain from eating chocolate cake, but finds himself eating the cake contrary to his own choice. Such a failure to act in a way that is consistent with one's own decision is called . Prudence, also known as practical wisdom, is the most important virtue for Aristotle. In war, soldiers must fight with prudence by making judgments through practical wisdom. This virtue is a must to obtain because courage requires judgments to be made. II. Temperance, or self- control, simply means moderation. Soldiers must display moderation with their enjoyment while at war in the midst of violent activities. Temperance concerning courage gives one moderation in private which leads to moderation in public. III. Courage, the one we will focus on in this article, is . War is simply a stage for soldiers to display courage, and is the only way courage can be exemplified. Any other action by a human is simply them copying a soldier. Justice means giving the enemy what is due to them in the proper ways; being just toward them. In other words, one must recognize what is good for the community and one must undertake a good course of action. Vices of courage must also be identified which are cowardice and recklessness. Soldiers who are not prudent act with cowardice, and soldiers who do not have temperance act with recklessness. One should not be unjust toward their enemy no matter the circumstance. On another note, one becomes virtuous by first imitating another who exemplifies such virtuous characteristics, practicing such ways in their daily lives, turning those ways into customs and habits by performing them each and every day, and finally, connecting or uniting the four of them together. Only soldiers can exemplify such virtues because war demands soldiers to exercise disciplined and firm virtues, but war does everything in its power to shatter the virtues it demands. Since virtues are very fragile, they must be practiced always, for if they are not practiced they will weaken and eventually disappear. One who is virtuous has to avoid the enemies of virtue which are indifference or persuasion that something should not be done, self- indulgence or persuasion that something can wait and does not need to be done at that moment, and despair or persuasion that something simply cannot be accomplished anyway. In order for one to be virtuous they must display prudence, temperance, courage, and justice; moreover, they have to display all four of them and not just one or two to be virtuous. Justice. In this discussion, Aristotle defines justice as having two different but related senses. General justice is virtue expressed in relation to other people. Thus the just man in this sense deals properly and fairly with others, and expresses his virtue in his dealings with them. For Aristotle, such justice is proportional. Monasticism. General Information. Monasticism (from the Greek monos, meaning . Monastic orders historically. The practice is ancient, having existed in India. Christ. It can be found in some form. Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism. Taoism, the Sufi branch of Islam, and Christianity. In the. time of Christ, the Essenes at Qumran were Jewish monks. Monasticism always. Asceticism, or the practice of disciplined self - denial. Almost always it includes poverty, celibacy, and. The goal of such practices. God, some type of. God through prayer. Saint Anthony the Great was connected. Egyptian hermits; Saint Pachomius (d. Egypt. Saint Basil the. Great (fl. 3. 79), bishop of Caesarea, placed monasticism in an. Among the principal monastic orders that. Middle Ages were the Carthusians in the 1. Cistercians in the 1. Dominicans, Franciscans, and Carmelites - arose. Although Protestantism rejected monasticism in the. Anglican church since the 1. In its present - day form. Christian monasticism is often adapted to the cultures or settings. Buddhist monks, for their part, continue to. Southeast Asia and Japan. The vows of celibacy, poverty, and obedience under. A person. bound by such vows is known as a religious (Latin religare. A man who belongs to a monastic order is also called a monk. History. Forms of monasticism existed long before the birth of Jesus. Christ. Among the Hindus, the laws of Manu provide that, after. Buddha. created a monastic order, for which he drew up a set of rules. Christian religious orders. Among the Greeks the members of. Orphic brotherhood and the followers of Pythagoras showed. Among. the Jews the communities of the Essenes had many of the. Later, among the followers. Islam, some communities of Sufis settled in monasteries as. AD. The earliest. Christian monasticism was, probably, that of the anchorites. Stylites, who spent most of their time on the tops of. After a time, however, the necessities of the. In order to combine. From the union of the. Greek koinos bios. Anthony, who embraced solitude, established himself at Alexandria. Most of his followers. One of his. disciples, St. Pachomius, who established a great monastery on. Nile River, is regarded as the founder of the. Pachomius drew up for his subjects. All of these houses recognized the authority of. They constitute. the original type of the religious order. Athanasius, in central. North Africa by St. Augustine, and in Gaul by St. Benedict of Nursia early. Western monasticism its permanent form. Abbeys. Typical of Western monasticism were the abbeys, self- contained. Within the abbey walls were the abbey church, the. The buildings enclosed a large courtyard that was. The. abbeys of the Middle Ages were peaceful retreats for scholars. Christian piety and learning. One. of the oldest and greatest of the medieval abbeys was Monte. Cassino, founded by St. Some scholars believe that. Jewish communal and. Essenes. Still others speculate. Manichaean and similar forms of dualism inspired extremes of. Christian family. However, the first Christian. Early monastics believed that Paul preferred celibacy. Cor. 7: 8). Indeed, the first nuns seem to have been. Roman period who decided not to remarry. From one. point of view, the decision of some Christians to live separate from. These are the so - called. Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. Enraged by sin and fearful. Some, like Simeon Stylites, live very exotic lives and. More typical, however, was Anthony of. Egypt (c. 2. 50 - 3. His extreme asceticism. Egyptian monk, preferred the latter. He wrote a rule of life for. The rule became popular, and the. To the idea of community. Basil the Great (c. In his writings. and especially in his commentaries on the Scriptures, this father. Eastern monasticism defined a theory of Christian humanism which. According to Basil. Christian society. They should care for orphans, feed the poor. From Asia Minor to Britain its ideal. However, the Celtic monks tended to espouse the old. Latin monasticism, under the Great Rule. Benedict of Nursia (c. To the old promises of poverty. Christ the Benedictines added stability. The essence of Benedict's rule is its. Christian living. It forbade excess and. It. gave an elaborate description of the role of each person in the. Christ in the community. For this reason the Benedictine Rule. Europe. Because of their devotion. These varied somewhat according to place and season. Christendom. In addition, monks and nuns. They studied and copied the Scriptures and the. They were leaders in the so - called Carolingian. Renaissance, during which time (eighth - ninth centuries) writing. In monastic hands. The monasteries had a monopoly on education. High Middle Ages. It also sought to. Though it is no. longer acceptable to draw direct connections between the Cluniac. Gregory VII(1. 07. It was no longer clear that. God and society was commensurate with the praise. Great. donations of land and other forms of wealth made monks rich at a time. The popularity of the. The Cistercians, under their most influential leader. Bernard of Clairvaux, sought a new life of evangelical purity. They retreated from society and became an important. Their role in the evolution of sheep. The. Dominicans and Franciscans captured the collective imagination of a. Francis of Assisi represented the perfection of. Christian idealism in his effort to imitate the. Christ in all its purity and simplicity. By taking the. apostolic ideal outside the monastery, Francis gave it one last. The vast wealth which they had. Those. monastics who had kept their vows were seen as cut off from true. Christian freedom in lives that were futile and unfulfilled. Wherever. the Reformation was triumphant, the monasteries were disestablished. Liberals saw them as. The twentieth century has seen the rapid decline of. The basic idea of. The object of this is to achieve a life whose ideal is different from. Taken in this broad sense monachism may. Brahmin, Buddhist, Jewish, Christian, and Moslem. America. Hence it is claimed that a form of life which. This. article and its two accompanying articles, EASTERN MONASTICISM and WESTERN. MONASTICISM, deal with the monastic order strictly so called as distinct from. For information as to these see RELIGIOUS ORDERS. ITS GROWTH AND METHOD. Any discussion of pre- Christian asceticism is outside the scope of this article. While admitting this, however, it is equally certain that. Christians. For asceticism is the struggle against. In like manner he practises fasting and virginity that thereby he may. Such. passages as I John, ii, 1. If any man love the world, the charity of the Father is not in him. And the world passeth away and the concupiscence thereof. But. he that doeth the will of God abideth forever. And this is. precisely what the early ascetics did. We read of some who, driven by the spirit. God, dedicated their energies to the spread of the Gospel and, giving up all. Of others we hear that they renounced property and marriage so as. If these. were not strictly speaking monks and nuns, at least the monks and nuns were such. For the truth is that the Christian ideal is frankly an ascetic one. The first of these was the expectation of an immediate. Second Advent of Christ (cf. Corinthians 7: 2. Peter 4: 7, etc.) That this. This belief however had ceased to be of any great. A second. cause more operative in leading men to renounce the world was the vividness of. The first Christians saw the kingdom of Satan. In. their eyes the gods whose temples shone in every city were simply devils, and to. When Christianity first. Gentiles the Council of Jerusalem by its decree about. Acts 1. 5: 2. 0) made clear the line to be followed. But the difficulty. There were gods who presided over every. To honour these was idolatry, to ignore them would attract. Ans so when, to men placed in this dilemma. St. Probably the community of goods was simply a natural continuation of. Jesus and the Apostles, where one of the band kept the. There is no indication that such a custom was. Jerusalem it seems to have collapsed at an. It must be recognized also that influences such as the above were. The main cause which. Christ's law literally, to. Him in all simplicity, following in His footsteps whose . So we find monachism at first instinctive, informal. For him, as for all men, the end of life is to love God. Love is the union. If the creature is to love God, he can do it in one way only; by. God's, by doing the will of God in all things: . No one understands better than the monk those. Broadly. speaking this renunciation has three great branches corresponding to the three. The argument based on such passages. Matthew 1. 9: 2. 1 sq., may be put briefly thus. If a man wish to attain eternal. Augustine points out, the disciples. Jesus to include all who covet riches in the number of ? Man cannot sate his nature with the temporal and yet retain an. The extent to which this spiritual poverty is practised. In Egypt the. first teachers of monks taught that the renunciation should be made as absolute. Abbot Agathon used to say, . Macarius once, on returning to his cell, found a robber. He thereupon pretended to be a stranger. After a while he sold this also and gave the price. That the principle remained. St. Benedict speaks of. Let no one presume either to give or to. The. principle here laid down, viz., that the monk's renunciation of private property. No. matter to what extent any individual monk may be allowed the use of clothing. Next in difficulty will. It is obvious that of. Moreover the renunciation of the monk includes not. Jesus all sexual. The monastic idea of chastity is a life. It is primarily as a means to this. Among the. early Egyptian and Syrian monks in particular fasting was carried to such. This. error of course is confined to writers about monasticism, it has never been. This benefits those who. Christ on account of the holy service which. Lord when He said, I came not to do my own will but the will of Him that sent. Of all the steps in the process of renunciation, the denial. At the same time it is the. Jesus said (Matthew 1.
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